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Sharding splits databases into smaller parts to improve performance and scalability.

Transactions ensure database operations are reliable using ACID properties.

Database bottlenecks slow down performance, but identifying them helps optimize and scale effectively.

Database isolation levels determine how transactions interact and affect data consistency.

Write-Ahead Log ensures data is safely recorded before changes are made.

2-Phase Commit helps maintain data consistency in transactions across multiple databases.

Cache breakdowns can overwhelm databases, but request coalescing solves this issue.

Cache stampede occurs when many requests hit the database due to a cache miss.

Cache penetration occurs when requests for non-existent data overload the database.

Partition pruning helps databases skip unnecessary data scans, speeding up queries.